The Discoveries

Great Breakthroughs in 20th-Century Science, Including the Original Papers

Author Alan Lightman On Tour
In this captivating and lucid book, the bestselling author of Einstein's Dreams chronicles twenty-four great discoveries of twentieth-century science--everything from the theory of relativity to mapping the structure of DNA.

These discoveries radically changed our notions of the world and our place in it. Here are Einstein, Fleming, Bohr, McClintock, Paul ing, Watson and Crick, Heisenberg and many others. With remarkable insight, Lightman charts the intellectual and emotional landscape of the time, portrays the human drama of discovery, and explains the significance and impact of the work. Finally he includes a fascinating and unique guided tour through the original papers in which the discoveries were revealed. Here is science writing at its best–beautiful, lyrical and completely accessible. It brings the process of discovery to life before our very eyes.
Introduction
A Note on Numbers

1. THE QUANTUM
—“On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum,” by Max Planck (1900)

2. HORMONES
—“The Mechanism of Pancreatic Secretion,” by William Bayliss and Ernest Starling (1902)

3. THE PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT
—“On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light,” by Albert Einstein (1905)

4. SPECIAL RELATIVITY
—“On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” by Albert Einstein (1905)

5. THE NUCLEUS OF THE ATOM
—“The Scattering of alpha and beta Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom,” by Ernest Rutherford (1911)

6. THE SIZE OF THE COSMOS
—“Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud,” by Henrietta Leavitt (1912)

7. THE ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN SOLID MATTER
—“Interference Phenomena with Röntgen Rays,” by W. Friedrich, P. Knipping, and M. von Laue (1912)

8. THE QUANTUM ATOM
—“On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules,” by Niels Bohr (1913)

9. THE MEANS OF COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NERVES
—“On the Humoral Transmission of the Action of the Cardiac Nerve,” by Otto Loewi (1921)

10. THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
—“On the Physical Content of Quantum Kinematics and Mechanics,” Werner Heisenberg (1927)

11. THE CHEMICAL BOND
—“The Shared-Electron Chemical Bond,” by Linus Pauling (1928)

12. THE EXPANSION OF THE UNIVERSE
—“A Relation Between Distance and Radial Velocity Among Extra-Galactic Nebulae,” by Edwin Hubble (1929)

13. ANTIBIOTICS
—“On the Antibacterial Action of Cultures of Penicillium, with Special Reference to Their Use in the Isolation of B. Influenzae,” by Alexander Fleming (1929)

14. THE MEANS OF PRODUCTION OF ENERGY IN LIVING ORGANISMS
—“The Role of Citric Acid in Intermediate Metabolism in Animal Tissues,” by Hans Krebs and W. A. Johnson (1937)

15. NUCLEAR FISSION
—“Concerning the Existence of Alkaline Earth Metals Resulting from Neutron Irradiation of Uranium,” by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann (1939) and
—“Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: A New Type of Nuclear Reaction,” by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch (1939)

16. THE MOVABILITY OF GENES
—“Mutable Loci in Maize,” Barbara McClintock (1948)

17. THE STRUCTURE OF DNA
—“Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids,” by James D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick (1953) and
—“Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate,” by Rosalind E. Franklin and R. G. Gosling (1953)

18. THE STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
—“Structure of Hæmoglobin,” by Max F. Perutz, M. G. Rossmann, Ann F. Cullis, Hilary Muirhead, Georg Will, and A. C. T. North (1960)

19. RADIO WAVES FROM THE BIG BANG
—“A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s,” by Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson and
—“Cosmic Black-Body Radiation,” by Robert H. Dicke, P. James E. Peebles, Peter G. Roll, and David T. Wilkinson (1965)

20. A UNIFIED THEORY OF FORCES
—“A Model of Leptons,”" by Steven Weinberg (1967)

21. QUARKS: A TINIEST ESSENCE OF MATTER
—“Observed Behavior of Highly Inelastic Electron-Proton Scattering,” by M. Breidenbach, J. I. Friedman, H. W. Kendall, E. D. Bloom, D. H. Coward, H. DeStaebler, J. Drees, L. W. Mo, and R. E. Taylor (1969)

22. THE CREATION OF ALTERED FORMS OF LIFE
—“Biochemical Method of Inserting New Genetic Information into DNA of Simian Virus 40,” by David A. Jackson, Robert H. Symons, and Paul Berg (1972)

EPILOGUE

Notes
Abridgments of Papers
Acknowledgments
Permission Acknowledgments
Index
© Michael Lionstar
ALAN LIGHTMAN earned his PhD in physics from the California Institute of Technology and is the author of seven novels, including the international best seller Einstein’s Dreams and The Diagnosis, a finalist for the National Book Award. His nonfiction includes The Accidental Universe, Searching for Stars on an Island in Maine, and Probable Impossibilities. He has taught at Harvard and at MIT, where he was the first person to receive a dual faculty appointment in science and the humanities. He is currently a professor of the practice of the humanities at MIT. He is the host of the public television series Searching: Our Quest for Meaning in the Age of Science. View titles by Alan Lightman

About

In this captivating and lucid book, the bestselling author of Einstein's Dreams chronicles twenty-four great discoveries of twentieth-century science--everything from the theory of relativity to mapping the structure of DNA.

These discoveries radically changed our notions of the world and our place in it. Here are Einstein, Fleming, Bohr, McClintock, Paul ing, Watson and Crick, Heisenberg and many others. With remarkable insight, Lightman charts the intellectual and emotional landscape of the time, portrays the human drama of discovery, and explains the significance and impact of the work. Finally he includes a fascinating and unique guided tour through the original papers in which the discoveries were revealed. Here is science writing at its best–beautiful, lyrical and completely accessible. It brings the process of discovery to life before our very eyes.

Table of Contents

Introduction
A Note on Numbers

1. THE QUANTUM
—“On the Theory of the Energy Distribution Law of the Normal Spectrum,” by Max Planck (1900)

2. HORMONES
—“The Mechanism of Pancreatic Secretion,” by William Bayliss and Ernest Starling (1902)

3. THE PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT
—“On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light,” by Albert Einstein (1905)

4. SPECIAL RELATIVITY
—“On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” by Albert Einstein (1905)

5. THE NUCLEUS OF THE ATOM
—“The Scattering of alpha and beta Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom,” by Ernest Rutherford (1911)

6. THE SIZE OF THE COSMOS
—“Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud,” by Henrietta Leavitt (1912)

7. THE ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN SOLID MATTER
—“Interference Phenomena with Röntgen Rays,” by W. Friedrich, P. Knipping, and M. von Laue (1912)

8. THE QUANTUM ATOM
—“On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules,” by Niels Bohr (1913)

9. THE MEANS OF COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NERVES
—“On the Humoral Transmission of the Action of the Cardiac Nerve,” by Otto Loewi (1921)

10. THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
—“On the Physical Content of Quantum Kinematics and Mechanics,” Werner Heisenberg (1927)

11. THE CHEMICAL BOND
—“The Shared-Electron Chemical Bond,” by Linus Pauling (1928)

12. THE EXPANSION OF THE UNIVERSE
—“A Relation Between Distance and Radial Velocity Among Extra-Galactic Nebulae,” by Edwin Hubble (1929)

13. ANTIBIOTICS
—“On the Antibacterial Action of Cultures of Penicillium, with Special Reference to Their Use in the Isolation of B. Influenzae,” by Alexander Fleming (1929)

14. THE MEANS OF PRODUCTION OF ENERGY IN LIVING ORGANISMS
—“The Role of Citric Acid in Intermediate Metabolism in Animal Tissues,” by Hans Krebs and W. A. Johnson (1937)

15. NUCLEAR FISSION
—“Concerning the Existence of Alkaline Earth Metals Resulting from Neutron Irradiation of Uranium,” by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann (1939) and
—“Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: A New Type of Nuclear Reaction,” by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch (1939)

16. THE MOVABILITY OF GENES
—“Mutable Loci in Maize,” Barbara McClintock (1948)

17. THE STRUCTURE OF DNA
—“Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids,” by James D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick (1953) and
—“Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate,” by Rosalind E. Franklin and R. G. Gosling (1953)

18. THE STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
—“Structure of Hæmoglobin,” by Max F. Perutz, M. G. Rossmann, Ann F. Cullis, Hilary Muirhead, Georg Will, and A. C. T. North (1960)

19. RADIO WAVES FROM THE BIG BANG
—“A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s,” by Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson and
—“Cosmic Black-Body Radiation,” by Robert H. Dicke, P. James E. Peebles, Peter G. Roll, and David T. Wilkinson (1965)

20. A UNIFIED THEORY OF FORCES
—“A Model of Leptons,”" by Steven Weinberg (1967)

21. QUARKS: A TINIEST ESSENCE OF MATTER
—“Observed Behavior of Highly Inelastic Electron-Proton Scattering,” by M. Breidenbach, J. I. Friedman, H. W. Kendall, E. D. Bloom, D. H. Coward, H. DeStaebler, J. Drees, L. W. Mo, and R. E. Taylor (1969)

22. THE CREATION OF ALTERED FORMS OF LIFE
—“Biochemical Method of Inserting New Genetic Information into DNA of Simian Virus 40,” by David A. Jackson, Robert H. Symons, and Paul Berg (1972)

EPILOGUE

Notes
Abridgments of Papers
Acknowledgments
Permission Acknowledgments
Index

Author

© Michael Lionstar
ALAN LIGHTMAN earned his PhD in physics from the California Institute of Technology and is the author of seven novels, including the international best seller Einstein’s Dreams and The Diagnosis, a finalist for the National Book Award. His nonfiction includes The Accidental Universe, Searching for Stars on an Island in Maine, and Probable Impossibilities. He has taught at Harvard and at MIT, where he was the first person to receive a dual faculty appointment in science and the humanities. He is currently a professor of the practice of the humanities at MIT. He is the host of the public television series Searching: Our Quest for Meaning in the Age of Science. View titles by Alan Lightman